Definition and Examples of Corpus Linguistics

Corpus linguistics is the study of language based on large collections of real life language use stored in corpora (or corpuses)--computerized databases created for linguistic research. Also known as corpus-based studies. Corpus linguistics is viewed by some linguists as a research tool or methodology, and by others as a discipline or theory in its own right.  Kuebler and Zinsmeister conclude that the answer to the question whether corpus linguistics is a theory or a tool is simply that it can be both. It depends on how corpus linguistics is applied (Corpus Linguistics and Linguistically Annotated Corpora, 2015). Although the methods used in corpus linguistics were first adopted in the early 1960s, the term corpus linguistics didnt appear until the 1980s. Examples and Observations [C]orpus linguistics is . . . a methodology,  comprising a large number of related methods which can be used by scholars of many different theoretical leanings. On the other hand, it cannot be denied that corpus linguistics is also frequently associated with a certain outlook on language. At the centre of this outlook is that the rules of language are usage-based and that changes occur when speakers use language to communicate with each other. The argument is that if you are interested in the workings of a particular language, like English, it is a good idea to study language in use. One efficient way of doing this is to use corpus methodology . . .. (Hans Lindquist, Corpus Linguistics and the Description of English. Edinburgh University Press, 2009)Corpus studies boomed from 1980 onwards, as corpora, techniques and new arguments in favour of the use of corpora became more apparent. Currently this boom continues--and both of the schools of corpus linguistics are growing . . .. Corp us linguistics is maturing methodologically and the range of languages addressed by corpus linguists is growing annually. (Tony McEnery and Andrew Wilson, Corpus Linguistics, Edinburgh University Press, 2001) Corpus Linguistics in the Classroom In the context of the classroom the methodology of corpus linguistics is congenial for students of all levels because it is a bottoms-up study of the language requiring very little learned expertise to start with. Even the students that come to linguistic enquiry without a theoretical apparatus learn very quickly to advance their hypotheses on the basis of their observations rather than received knowledge, and test them against the evidence provided by the corpus. (Elena Tognini-Bonelli,  Corpus Linguistics at Work. John Benjamins, 2001)To make good use of corpus resources a teacher needs a modest orientation to the routines involved in retrieving information from the corpus, and--most importantly--training and experience in how to evaluate that information. (John McHardy Sinclair, How to Use Corpora in Language Teaching, John Benjamins, 2004) Quantitative and Qualitative Analyses Quantitative techniques are essential for corpus-based studies. For example, if you wanted to compare the language use of patterns for the words big and large, you would need to know how many times each word occurs in the corpus, how many different words co-occur with each of these adjectives (the collocations), and how common each of those collocations is. These are all quantitative measurements. . . .A crucial part of the corpus-based approach is going beyond the quantitative patterns to propose functional interpretations explaining why the patterns exist. As a result, a large amount of effort in corpus-based studies is devoted to explaining and exemplifying quantitative patterns. (Douglas Biber, Susan Conrad, and Randi Reppen, Corpus Linguistics: Investigating Language Structure and Use, Cambridge University Press, 2004)[I]n corpus linguistics quantitative and qualitative methods are extensively used in combination. It is also characteristic of corpus linguistics to begin with qua ntitative findings, and work toward qualitative ones. But . . . the procedure may have cyclic elements. Generally it is desirable to subject quantitative results to qualitative scrutiny--attempting to explain why a particular frequency pattern occurs, for example. But on the other hand, qualitative analysis (making use of the investigators ability to interpret samples of language in context) may be the means for classifying examples in a particular corpus by their meanings; and this qualitative analysis may then be the input to a further quantitative analysis, one based on meaning . . .. (Geoffrey Leech, Marianne Hundt, Christian Mair, and Nicholas Smith, Change in Contemporary English: A Grammatical Study. Cambridge University Press, 2012)

Educating Children With Children Can Learn From Great...

Engaging in recreation is a process by which children can learn from. Great quality play has a significant impact on child development. Play involves the child, thinking, creative expression of thoughts and feelings, and physical demands. It all interacts with in there dynamic process. Children learn about relationships with peers, significant adults, and the world around them. They experience the complete range of their senses and feelings, how their bodies move through space, and how their imaginations can create alternate worlds of existence. When children build with blocks or sand, romp through the modules of a playground superstructure, they learn limits and bond through horse playing, expressing themselves it represent the world through hundreds of different materials, they gain the benefits of play in thousands of different ways. They are continually learning and emerging, becoming healthy, well reasonable individuals through play. Children usually respond when asked about play, play is more than just fun. Play is engaging, voluntary and spontaneous. Taking part is a way for children to learn more about whom they are and what they can do. Play is a way for children to test limits, engage in fantasy, and learn about others. Play in the United States over the last century has gone from being almost completely an outdoor activity to one that is often situated indoors in front of televisions and computers. Schools, so often concernedShow MoreRelatedThe Professional Identity Of A Teacher1217 Words   |  5 PagesTeachers play an important role in society. They are responsible for educating children, the leaders of tomorrow. A teacher is recognised as one of the most influential people involved within the development of a child, responsible for the imparting of both social and academic knowledge. As an aspiring teacher it is important to reflect and critique on the professional identity of a teacher. 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Example of a Well Structured free essay sample

Example of a well structured essay. The content isn’t that exiting and the conclusion is quite weak, but there are many good points to make on the way the essay is structured and the way the information is put across. All my comments are highlighted thus. A good introduction. †¢Does the job of clearly defining the topic covered in the essay and the specific aspects which will be discussed. See in particular last sentence of introduction. ( We will be looking at the structure of introductions more specifically in another class. ) †¢ Grabs reader’s attention by including stats and a quote. If you suffer from shyness, you are not alone, for shyness is a universal phenomenon. According to recent research, â€Å"close to 50 percent of the general population report that they currently experience some degree of shyness in their lives. In addition, close to 80 percent of people report having felt shy at some point in their lives† (Payne, 2000, p. 5). As shyness is so prevalent in the world, it is not surprising that social scientists are learning more about its causes. They have found that shyness in an individual can result from both biological and environmental factors. This is the thesis statement of the essay. It is the most specific sentence of the intro and indicates clearly what will be covered in the essay, and in what way it will be covered. This may be too detailed for this session and will be covered in session on paragraphs etc.. Body paragraphs are coherent and only deal with one aspect of the main topic. Paragraph 1 – covers the genetic causes of shyness Points are well supported by quotes Recent research reveals that some individuals are genetically predisposed to shyness. In other words, some people are born shy. Researches say that between 15 and 20 percent of newborn babies show signs of shyness: they are quieter and more vigilant. Researchers have identified physiological differences between sociable and shy babies that show up as early as two months. In one study, two-month-olds who were later identified as shy children reacted with sign of stress to stimuli such as moving mobiles and tape recordings of human voices: increased heart rates, jerky movements of arms and legs and excessive crying. Further evidence of the genetic basis of shyness is the fact that parents and grandparents of shy children more often say that they were shy as children than parents and grandparents of non-shy children (Henderson and Zimbardo, 2005). Paragraph 2 Not really a full paragraph, but it acts as a transition paragraph to move the reader from the genetic causes of shyness to the environmental causes. However, environment can, at least in some cases, triumph over biology. A shy child may lose much of his or her shyness. On the other hand, many people who were not shy as children may become shy adults, a fact that points to environmental or experiential causes. Paragraph 3 Covers first environmental cause The first environmental cause of shyness may be a child’s home and family life. Children who grew up with a difficult relationship with parents or a dominating older sibling are more likely to be inhibited in social interactions. Another factor is the fact that today’s children are growing up in smaller and smaller families, with fewer and fewer relatives living nearby. Growing up in single-parent homes or in homes in which both parents work full time, children may not have the socialising experience of frequent visits by neighbours and friends. Because of the lack of social skills, they may begin to feel socially inhibited, or shy, when they start school (Smith, 2002). Paragraph 4 Covers 2nd environmental cause A second environmental cause of shyness in an individual may be one’s culture. In a large study conducted in several nations, 40 percent of participants in the United States rated themselves as shy, compared to 57 percent in Japan and 55 percent in Taiwan. Of the countries participating in the study, the lowest percentage of shyness was found in Israel, were the rate was 31 percent. Researchers Henderson and Zimbardo argue that one explanation of the cultural difference between Japanese and Israelis lies in the way each culture deals with attributing credit for success and blame for failure. 2005, p. 20). â€Å"In Japan, an individual’s performance success is credited externally to parents, grandparents, teachers and others, while failure is entirely blamed on the person. Therefore the Japanese learn not to take risks in public and rely instead on group-shared decisions. † (Henderson and Zimbardo, 2005, p. 22). In Israel, the situation is entirely reversed accord ing to Henderson and Zimbardo. â€Å"Failure is externally attributed to parents, teachers, friends and other sources, while all performance success is credited to the individual’s enterprise† (2005, p. 22). The consequence is that Israelis are free to take risks since there is nothing to lose by trying and everything to gain. (2005). Paragraph 5 Covers 3rd environmental cause In addition to family and culture, technology may play a role as well. In the United States, the number of young people who report being shy, has risen from 40 percent to 50 percent in recent years (Payne, 2005). The rising number of shy young people may be â€Å"due in part to the growing dependence on non-human forms of communication, coming about as a result of our huge advances in technology† (Payne, 2005, p. 6). Watching television, playing video games and surfing the web have displaced recreational activities that involve social interaction for many young people. Adults too, are becoming more isolated as a result of technology. Face-to-face interactions with bank clerks, petrol station attendants and shop assistants are no longer necessary because people can use machines to do their banking, fill their petrol tanks and order merchandise. College students take online telecourses. Telecommuters work at home, giving up daily contact with co-workers. Everyone texts, e-mails and converses anonymously in online chat rooms. As a result, people have less opportunity to socialise in person, become increasingly awkward at it and eventually start avoiding it altogether. In short, they become shy. Paragraph 6 Covers not a cause but the effects of shyness. While being shy has some negative consequences, it also has positive aspects. For one thing, it has been mentioned that shy people are good listeners (Smith, 2002). Furthermore, a university professor writing about his own shyness says â€Å"Because of their tendency towards self-criticism, shy people are often high achievers, and not just in solitary activities like research and writing. Perhaps, even more that the drive towards independent achievement, shy people long to make connections to others, often through altruistic behaviour† (Benton, 2004, p. 110). Conclusion Shyness has both genetic and environmental causes. Some people come into the world shy, while others become shy as a result of their experience in life. This sentence echoes the thesis statement at end of introduction. It appears that most people have experienced shyness at some time in their lives and recent research indicates that the number of shy people is increasing. Therefore, if you are shy, you have lots of company. . last sentence possibly a little weak!! But still does the job! Further comments: Linking/transitional signals – use of these to introduced a new item or a change of direction in argument or point, helps the text to flow and easier to read and understand†¦use of these and many others will be looked at in another session. Other point which could be picked on is the writing style and the way the sentences are constructed. In many cases the 2nd clause (section) of the sentence has been r

Contemporary Issues in Sports for Narcotic Analgesics and Diuretics

Question: Discuss about theContemporary Issues in Sports for Narcotic Analgesics and Diuretics. Answer: Introduction Doping, the term is derived from dope, which is an expression that was used to refer to an alcoholic drink which was used to stimulate dancers of South Africa; this term was later extended to modern day doping. Athletes use banned substance to improve their performance in sports. This is called doping. The International Olympic Committee and the International Sports Authorities and Federation have listed, identified and accepted some doping substances. The doping substances are stimulants,analogues, peptide, narcotic analgesics, diuretics and glycoprotein hormones and anabolic agents. This list is continuously updated by the major sports organizations like the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Sports Authorities. Doping methods can be of various types like physical manipulation, blood doping, chemical manipulation and pharmacological manipulation (Angelo et al., 2013). There are drugs like alcohol, beta-blockers, anesthetics, marijuana; corticosteroidsare su bjected to restrictions by organizations like International Olympic Committee (IOC). Some medical requirement can make it necessary to consume such drugs but without a proper medical ground. An athlete who consumes any of these substances or adopts this kind of doping methods is subjected to disqualification by governing organizations of sports (Alexander, 2014). Discussion According to O'Leary (2013), Doping has detrimental effects on athletes and it poses threat to fair competition in sports. In endurance sports like cycling, rowing, swimming, cross-country and skiing, athletes make use of drugs to enhance their performance. One such drug is erythropoietin which is consumed by athletes who play endurance sports. Erythropoietin leads to a higher level of red blood cells which can make the blood of athletes more oxygenated and thus increase their performance in endurance sports. Thus doping should be avoided as it leads to unfair competition. It has been criticized that sports like football and soccer are not doing much to resolve the issue of doping. However, according to Yar (2014), it can be alternatively be argued that doping should be legalized in athletes. The zero-tolerance against doping is not working. If the blood data is non-suspicious, it does not prove that no doping substances are used. It only means that doping substances in blood of athl etes did not exceed the range. It is known that athletes are subjected to doping but the organizations of sports are unable to clearly identify the athletes who have made use of doping substances. Thus, high-performance of athletes are subjected to suspicion and many athletes face harassments even if they do not make use of doping substances just because they have delivered high performance. For instance, cyclist Chris Froome and his teammates delivered high performance in Tour de France and was subjected to physical violence. Justin Gatlin has complained that bans related to doping have led to unfair and biased coverage of his performance (O'Leary, 2013). Key findings and Application of Social theory and Interventions The Athlete Biological passport is the fundamental principle which can be utilized for monitoring the specified biological variables over time that can reflect indirectly the effects of doping rather than to make an attempt to detect the doping substance or the doping method itself. The robust framework of the anti-doping program can be integrated into the Athlete Biological passport by the anti-doping organizations for identification and target of athletes who can be subjected to specific analytical testing by making use of intelligent methods for interpreting their passport data on time. WADA is the international independent organization which is responsible to monitor and coordinate the global fight against sports. The Athlete Biological Passport has been developed by WADA. The executive committee of WADA approved the Biological Passport Operating guidelines of WADA on December 1, 2009. A standardized approach was adopted by the first version of WADA ABP guidelines to profile the Haematological variables of the athletes to detect the doping level in blood of sportsmen. The second module was introduced by the fourth version of WADA ABP guidelines which is called the steroidal module which was used to detect steroid doping from urinary steroid concentrations of athletes over time. WADA will develop and revise the Athlete Biological Pass port guideline and thus intervene to control doing among sportsmen by consulting its stakeholders to intervene in anti-doping activities and to take strict measures and control to rectify the doping related issue in sports((WADA intervention, 2017) The anti-doping rule violations consist of 10 rules which are in alignment with the World-Anti Doping code like the sportsmen should not fail to submit a sample collection for testing related to doping, the athletes sample should not contain a prohibited substance, an athlete should not tamper with the doping control, an athlete should not be associated with a doctor or coach who has been found guilty of violating the anti-doping rules (WADA intervention, 2017) United Kingdom Anti Doping is the national anti-doping organization which is responsible for charging the personnel who have supported athletes or athletes directly for Anti-Doping Rule Violations (ADRV). The code of ADRV was developed by UKAD IN 2015 and the code is aligned to World-Anti Doping code, thus UKAD intervenes and control doping among sportsmen. Results from testing programs of doping related activities in sportsmen are also published by UKAD. There are more than 89 sports which are charged with having doping payers. In all international game formats, 115 nations were represented by doped players. There has been evidence of doping in football. FIFA is of the opinion that education can make sports free of doping. The intervention that is adopted by FIFA to ensure that football matches are free from doping is that FIFA ensures that team physicians sign a declaration that states that athletes will undergo routine blood testing before the commencement of FIFA world cup (Duntas Popovic, 2013). In the Olympic Games, athletes are tested for Erythropoietin by testing samples of their urine and blood. 18-pro cyclists have died due to the use of Erythropoietin as of 2012 (Barkoukis et al., 2013).Some of the Anti-Doping organizations that intervene in activities related to doping are the United States Olympic Committee. The International Olympic Committee has founded the World Anti-Doping Agency. The activities of the agency include education and development to intervene and address issues related to doping and to monitor the World Anti-Doping Code. The UNESCO International Convention a gainst Doping in Sports enforced the provision of the World-Anti Doping Agency. Also, the Council of Europe Anti-Doping Convention has intervened with doping activities related to sports to and the aims of this organization are in alignment with that of WADA (Morente-Snchez Zabala, 2013). Functionalist theory is applied to this issue related to doping in sportsmen. Emile Durkheim portrayed the perspective that interconnected part of a society or social being can be harmonized by philosophers and sociologists belonging to the same school of thought. The issue related to doping in sportsmen is considered a contemporary issue of sports because it raises questions against the social justification of sportsmen. Ben Johnson was found guilty of doping in the 1988 Seoul Olympics. Diego Maradona was also found guilty of doping in 1986 World Cup. Lance Armstrong, the renowned cyclist was accused of doping in Tour de France in 2005. The doping acquisitions against Armstrong got stronger because his teammates were found to consume Erythropoietin. Maria Sharapova, the five-time Grand Slam Winner was found guilty of doping and claimed that she concealed the use of meldonium from authorities and International Tennis Federation banned her from playing tennis till 26 January, 2018 (Pa oli Donati, 2014). A sports organization or a governing body of sports organize campaign, activities and programs and implement codes to address groups issues related to doping in sports. These code or conduct or campaigns are called intervention. The contemporary issues of sports are broad and diverse, so one intervention cant solve an issue. Intervention from sports organization is mandatory to address contemporary issue of sports like doping. Despite of the intervention to handle issues related to doping in sportsmen, the success rate of Anti-doping campaigns is just 1-2 percentages. The social theory is used in the research as the anti doping movement will lead to the harmony of the individual social being to create an effective understanding of the issues. The sports and anti-doping communities can be committed to clean sport; they can incorporate the Say No! To Doping logo in promotional materials, uniforms, sports equipment and competition venues. More than stringent law, social awareness needs to be developed so that more number of the sports persons can be driven to a squad free from doping. Conclusion It can be concluded that doping in sportsmen is a contemporary issue in sports that have negative consequences like doping leads to unfair competition in sports. The performance of sportsmen increases dramatically because of doping which does not ensure fair competition. There has been intervention from different sports organizations like WADA, IOC, FIFA and many more for implementing positive steps to control doping among sportsmen. However, the tests conducted to test doping in sportsmen are not always effective and many sportsmen have complained that bans which are related to doping caused unfair and biased coverage of their performance. Reference List Alexander, B. R. (2014). War on drugs redux: Welcome to the war on doping in sports.Substance use misuse,49(9), 1190-1193. Angelo Corlett, J., Brown Jr, V., Kirkland, K. (2013). Coping with doping.Journal of the Philosophy of Sport,40(1), 41-64. Barkoukis, V., Lazuras, L., Tsorbatzoudis, H., Rodafinos, A. (2013). Motivational and social cognitive predictors of doping intentions in elite sports: An integrated approach.Scandinavian journal of medicine science in sports,23(5). Duntas, L. H., Popovic, V. (2013). Hormones as doping in sports.Endocrine,43(2), 303-313. Morente-Snchez, J., Zabala, M. (2013). Doping in sport: a review of elite athletes attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge.Sports Medicine,43(6), 395-411. O'Leary, J. (2013).Drugs Doping in Sports. Routledge. Paoli, L., Donati, A. (2014). The sports doping market. InUnderstanding Supply and Demand and the Challenges of Their Control. Springer New York. WADA intervention. (2017).wada-ama.org. Retrieved 24 October 2017, from https://www.wada-ama.org/en/media/news/2017-04/wada-publishes-2015-anti-doping-rule-violations-report Yar, M. (2014).Crime, deviance and doping: Fallen sports stars, autobiography and the management of stigma. Springer.